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Friday, July 27, 2012
What is Sex Exactly?
Defining sex is not so easy. When you
think about it, there are many answers. Our book tells us that “sex refers to the biological and
anatomical differences between females and males” [TL1/PG348]. This is the
scientific evidence that explains the X chromosome, the Y chromosome, the
hormones, and so on and so forth. So does this really define male and female?
What if someone was born with male sex organs, but was self perceived as a
female, also known as a transsexual? If he walks like a female, dresses as a
female, has the same mannerisms as a female, but also has a penis, is he lying
to himself and everyone else? Should a person have the right to define him or
her self as transvestites do? The text’s definition of a transvestite is “a
male who lives as a woman or a female who lives as a man but does not alter the
genitalia” [TL2/PG351]. This is a conflict in gender identity, and can be
recognized as early as preschool. There are some instances in which the sexually
defining genitalia is ambiguous or incomplete. Hermaphrodites have either one
incomplete, or a little of both incomplete sex organs. There will never be one
conclusion for each of these questions. I feel that the answers are in the
hearts and minds of the individuals, and the technical aspect can be left to
science and the United States Census Bureau.
Gender Rules
Gender is different from sex that has been
described earlier. “Gender refers to the culturally and socially constructed
differences between females and males found in the meanings, beliefs, and
practices associated with “femininity” and “masculinity” [TL3/PG352]. For the
most part, we are never really told by our parents what sex we are. We don’t
know what our little parts are or what they are for, just that we go to the
bathroom from there and they are very private. Generally, little girls are
taught to act like little girls and little boys are taught to act like little
boys. Our gender roles develop through socialization. Kids are influenced by
peers, teachers, schools, sports, and mass media. This was an issue for me as a
little girl beginning at about age 3. I adored my brother. He was four years
older than I, so we were closer in age than I was with my sister. She and I had
a ten year age difference so I thought everything that she did and liked was
disgusting and I wanted nothing to do with it. I would try my hardest to
embarrass her when her friends were around by reporting the sounds that come
from the bathroom when she was in there, or what exactly was under that
foundation makeup on her face. My brother on the other hand, was my idol. He
and I saw eye to eye. I loved playing with his toys and watching the same
cartoons that were geared toward little boys. My legs and elbows looked like I
had been through a meat grinder as my mother would say. I always tried to
emulate his bicycle jumps and skateboard tricks. Mom would try so desperately
to make me into a “little girl”. She would make me wear dresses with bows in my
hair, only for me to rip out the bows and slip on some shorts under the dress
when she wasn’t looking. I didn’t necessarily think that I was a boy; I just wanted to be one. Around
age 12, I had begun to outgrow the tomboy stage, and began to appreciate all of
the “gender appropriate” articles that my mother had been hoping that I would
conform to. I guess I noticed it when I caught myself thinking that one of my
brother’s friends was cute.
Sexism and Gender Inequality is
Everywhere
Sexism is a form of discrimination. “Sexism
is the subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed
superiority of the other sex” [TL4/PG354]. Men can also be victims of sexism,
but it’s generally women that experience the short end of the stick. (No pun
intended.) I feel that sexism and gender inequality really go hand in hand. In
the workplace for example, when a man reaches his middle age, has gray hair,
and a few wrinkles, he’s considered to be at his prime. Society makes middle
aged women feel “over the hill”. Ad campaigns make their multimillions of
dollars by pointing out every flabby spot, extra pound, wrinkle, and gray hair
in women. It has even become a health problem in many young women as well in
regards to eating disorders. We have seen those skeletons on the magazine
covers.
Behind Who?
While women have made a significant impact
on laws and progress in the work force in the past 50 or 60 years or so, there
is still a long way to go. “Although women continue to narrow the pay gap,
women earn about 79 cents for every dollar compared with men” [TL5/PG378]. Doesn’t
sound right, does it? Women are beautiful, and should be admired as such, no
matter the size, shape, or color. You know that funny bumper sticker that says,
“Behind every good man is a good woman”? Why don’t we try standing next to him
instead?
Eyes
“The eyes are the windows to the soul.” Eye contact is how
an individual views others, and how the individual is viewed. A sense of
connectedness occurs through eye contact. It is the initial step in striking up
a conversation. One of the most amazing roles our eyes have is in flirtation
(Hybels & Weaver p.146).
Eye contact can also be taken the wrong way. Aside from
cultural differences that we need to be cognizant of, there are social rules
that we must follow in order to remain non-threatening and socially acceptable.
Staring, for example, is taken negatively if done for too long. The one being
stared at may feel threatened or uncomfortable, possibly even violated in a
way. Staring is also often used to register disapproval of the behavior of
another (Townsend p. 105). When I was a
little girl, I loved to play in the clothing racks at K-Mart. But when I went
with my grandmother, she didn’t like it so much, and when I caught a glimpse of
her staring at me, I knew I was in trouble. She didn’t have to say a word, and
it was even worse if she raised her eyebrow.
Another form of eye contact is gazing into someone’s eyes.
This arouses strong emotions. I know this to be true as well, from my own
personal experiences with my future husband. If one or both viewers feel the
urge to look away, it usually occurs after about 3 seconds. Breaking eye
contact lowers stress levels (Townsend p. 106).
In American culture, eye contact shows an interest in the
other person, and it indicates that the communication channel is open. It is
also a sign of honesty, credibility, warmth, and involvement. Lack of eye
contact, not just in the American culture, can indicate disinterest,
inattention, rudeness, shyness, deception, and disrespect (Hybels & Weaver
p. 146). In other cultures however; eye contact can be intimidating and
disrespectful. Many Asians and Pacific Islanders believe that young people
should never make eye contact with their elders (Hybels & Weaver p. 146).
In African countries, it is unacceptable to look into the eyes of a prominent
figure (Hybels & Weaver p. 146).
Word Count: 367
Works Cited:
Hybels, Saundra and Richard L. Weaver. Communicating Effectively. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009. Print.
Townsend, Mary. Essentials
of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing, 4th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis, 2009. Print.
Thursday, July 26, 2012
Wednesday, July 25, 2012
Tuesday, July 24, 2012
Sunday, July 22, 2012
Saturday, July 21, 2012
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Chapter Twelve chemistry note
·
Alcohols and ethers are two classes of organic
compounds that contain an oxygen (O) atom.
·
In an alcohol, the oxygen atom is part of a
hydroxyl group (-OH).
·
In an ether, the oxygen atom is attached to two
carbon atoms.
·
They both have structures similar to water.
·
One hydrogen atom of water is replaced by an
alkyl group in an alcohol and by a benzene ring in a phenol.
·
Naming alcohols:
1.
Name the longest carbon chain containing the –OH
group and replace the –e with –ol.
2.
Number the longest chain, starting at the end
closest to the –OH group.
3.
Name and number the other substituents relative
to the –OH group.
4.
Name a cyclic alcohol as a cycloalkanol.
5.
When the –OH group is attached to a benzene
ring, it is named a phenol.
***The
–OH is the first when counting.
·
Alcohols are classified by the number of carbon
groups attached to the carbon atom bonded to the hydroxyl (-OH) group.
·
A primary alcohol has one alkyl group attached
the carbon atom bonded to the –OH.
·
A secondary alcohol has two alkyl groups.
·
A tertiary has three alkyl groups.
·
Thiols are a family of sulfur containing organic
compounds that have a thiol (-SH) group. It’s like alcohol except the –SH group
replaces the –OH group. These are named by adding thiol to the longest carbon
chain.
·
An ether contains an oxygen atom that is
attached by single bonds to two carbon groups that are alkyls or aromatic
rings. They have a bent structure like water and alcohols.
·
The first four alcohols are soluble in water.
·
Phenol is soluble in water because the hydroxyl
group ionizes slightly as a weak acid. In fact, an early name for phenol was
carbolic acid.
·
Alcohols burn with oxygen too.
·
During dehydration of alcohol, H- and –OH are
removed from adjacent carbon atoms of the same alcohol to produce a water
molecule. When alcohol is dehydrated, it turns into an alkene and water.
·
Oxidation means the loss of a hydrogen atom or
the addition of oxygen. It occurs when there is an increase in the number of
carbon-oxygen bonds.
·
The oxidation of a primary alcohol produces an
aldehyde, which contains a double bond between the carbon and the oxygen.
·
Tertiary alcohols do not oxidize readily because
there are no hydrogen atoms on the carbon bonded to the –OH group. C-C bonds
are usually too strong to oxidize, tertiary alcohols resist oxidation.
·
In an aldehyde, the carbon of the carbonyl group
is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom. The group name suffix changes to –al.
·
In a ketone, the carbonyl group is bonded to two
alkyl groups or aromatic rings. The group name suffix changes to –one.
·
Naming aldehydes:
1.
Name the longest carbon chain containing the
carbonyl group by replacing the –e to –al. No number is needed for the aldehyde
because it’s always at the end.
2.
Name and number the substituents on the carbon
chain by counting the carbonyl carbon as carbon 1.
·
Naming ketones:
1.
Name the longest carbon chain containing the
carbonyl group by replacing the –e in the corresponding alkane name by –one.
2.
Number the main chain starting from the end
nearest the carbonyl group.
3.
Name and number any substituents on the carbon
chain.
4.
For cyclic ketones, the prefix cyclo is used in
front of the ketone name.
·
Aldehydes oxidize readily to carboxylic acids.
·
Molecules are structural isomers when they have
had the same molecular formula, but different bonding arrangements.
·
Another group of isomers called steroisomers
have identical molecular formulas but are not structural isomers. The atoms are
bonded in the same sequence, but differ in the way they are arranged in space.
·
Objects that have nonsuperimposable mirror
images are chiral. Left and right shoes are chiral. So if the item is in the
mirror it looks exactly the same only in the mirror.
·
A carbon compound is chiral if it has at least
one carbon atom bonded to four different atoms or groups. This type of carbon
atom is called a chiral carbon because there are two different ways that it can
bond to four atoms or groups of atoms. ***Has to be four different bonds***
·
When steroisomers cannot be superimposed, they
are called enantiomers.
Chapter Eleven chemistry note
·
Alkenes and alkynes are families of hydrocarbons
that contain double and triple bonds, respectively. They are called unsaturated
carbons because they do not contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms as do
alkanes. They react with hydrogen gas to increase the number of hydrogen atoms
to become alkanes, which are saturates hydrocarbons because they so have the
maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
·
Alkenes contain one or more carbon-carbon double
bonds formed when adjacent carbon atoms share two pairs of valence electrons.
·
In an alkyne, a triple bond forms when two
carbon atoms share three pairs of valence electrons.
·
Naming alkenes and alkynes:
1.
Name the longest carbon chain that contains the
double or triple bond. Replace the suffix with the respective new suffix, -ene
or –yne.
2.
Number the longest chain from the end nearest
the double or triple bond. Indicate using the lowest number. You have to name
where the bond is.
3.
Give the location and name of each substituent
in alphabetical order as a prefix to the alkene or alkyne name.
·
In alkenes, there is no rotation around the
carbons in the double bond because it’s rigid.
·
A cis isomer, the hydrogen atoms are on the same
side of the double bond.
·
Trans isomers have hydrogen atoms on opposite
sides.
·
Cis or trans comes first when naming the group.
·
For alkenes and alkynes, the most characteristic
reaction is the addition of atoms or groups of atoms to the carbons of the
double or triple bond.
·
In a reaction called hydrogenation, two atoms of
hydrogen atach to the carbons in a double bond of an alkene to form alkane.
·
In hydration, an alkene reacts with water
(H-OH). The hydrogen atom forms a bond with one carbon atom in the double bond,
and the oxygen atom in OH forms a bond with the other carbon.
·
When water adds to a double bond in which the
carbon atoms are attached to a different number of H atoms, the H from HOH
attaches to the carbon that already has the most H atoms.
·
Polymers are large molecules that consist of
small repeating units called monomers.
·
Another hydrocarbon is benzene. Because many compounds
containing benzene had a fragrant odor, the family of benzene compounds became
known as aromatic compounds. A benzene molecule consists of a ring of six
carbon atoms with one hydrogen atom attached to each carbon.
·
When a benzene ring is a substituent, it’s named
as a phenyl group.
Chapter 10 chemistry note
·
Organic compounds always contain carbon (C),
usually hydrogen (H), and may also have other non-metallic elements such as
oxygen (O), sulfur (S), nitrogen (N) or chlorine (Cl).
·
It must have four bonds and they will always
have an H3 at the end.
·
Many organic compounds burn vigorously in air.
Typically, organic compounds are not soluble in water.
·
Inorganic compounds are ionic, which leads to
high melting and boiling points. Inorganic compounds that are ionic or polar
covalent are usually soluble in water.
·
Most organic substances so not burn in air.
·
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that consist
only of carbon and hydrogen. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, CH4.
·
A molecule with four atoms bonded to a central
atom has a tetrahedral shape.
·
More than 90% of the compounds in the world are
organic compounds. The large number of carbon compounds is possible because the
covalent bond between carbon atoms is very strong, allowing carbons to form
long, stable chains.
·
The alkanes are a class of hydrocarbons in which
they are connected by only single bonds. One of the most common uses is fuels.
·
Alkane prefixes:
1.
Methane CH4
2.
Ethane C2H6 CH3-CH3
3.
Propane C3H8
4.
Butane C4H10
5.
Pentane C5H12
6.
Hexane C6H14
7.
Heptane C7H16
8.
Octane C8H18
9.
Nonane C9H20
10.
Decane C10H22
·
In a condensed structural formula, each carbon
atom and its attached hydrogen atoms are written as a group. A subscript
indicates the number of hydrogen atoms bonded to each carbon atom.
·
The bonds can rotate freely about connecting the
carbon atoms.
·
Hydrocarbons can also form cyclic structures
called cycloalkanes, which have two fewer hydrogen atoms than the corresponding
alkanes.
·
Cyclo always has two compounds less,
the H2 is connected on each side, it’s not a straight line. When it
cyclizes, it loses 2H atoms.
·
cyclopropane cyclobutane
cyclopentane cyclohexane
·
When an alkane has four or more carbon atoms,
the atoms can be arranged so that a side group called a branch or substituent
is attached to a carbon. An alkane with at least one branch is called a
branched alkane.
·
When two compounds have the same molecular
formula but different arrangements of atoms, they are called isomers.
·
The carbon branch is named as an alkyl group,
which is an alkane that is missing one hydrogen atom.
o
CH3 = Methyl
o
CH3-- CH2 = Ethyl
o
CH3-- CH2--CH2 =
Propyl
o
F--, Cl--, Br--, I--, Fluoro, chloro, bromo,
iodo
 |
o
CH3—CH—CH3 = Isopropyl
·
How to write the alkanes with substituents
1.
Write the name of the longest chain
2.
Number the carbon atoms starting from the end
nearest a substituent (stay in that direction once you start numbering)
3.
Give the location and name of each substituent
as a prefix to the alkane name
4.
If there are more than one substituent, call
them di, tri, or tetra as appropriate
5.
No number is necessary for a compound with one
or two carbon atoms and one substituent
·
To figure out if the chain is an isomer or the
same molecule, count the carbons and hydrogens. If they’re the same, just
rearranged, they’re isomers. If they’re the same but not rearranged, just
flipped around, they’re the same molecule.
·
Many types of alkanes are the components of
fuels that power our cars and oil that heats our homes.
·
Alkanes are nonpolar, which makes them insoluble
in water. However, they are soluble in nonpolar solvents such as other alkanes.
·
The first four alkanes- methane, ethane,
propane, and butane- are gases at room temperature and are widely used as
heating fuels.
·
Alkanes having five to eight carbon atoms
–pentane, hexane, heptanes, and octane- are liquids at room temperature and are
highly volatile, which make them useful fuels such as gasoline.
·
Liquid alkanes with nine to seventeen carbon
atoms have higher boiling points and are found in kerosene, diesel, and jet
fuels.
·
An alkane undergoes combustion when it
completely reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Carbon-carbon single bonds are difficult to break, which makes alkanes the
least reactive family of organic compounds. Alkanes burn readily in oxygen.
·
In organic compounds, carbon atoms are most
likely to bond with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens.
·
Within this vast number of compounds, there are
specific groups of atoms called functional groups that give compounds similar
properties.
·
The alkenes contain one or more double bonds
between carbon atoms.
·
Alkynes contain triple bonds.
·
Aromatic compounds contain benzene, a molecule
that has a ring of six carbon atoms with one hydrogen atom attached to each
carbon.
·
The characteristic functional group in alcohols is
the hydroxyl (-OH) group bonded to a carbon atom.
·
In thiols, the functional group –SH is bonded to
a carbon atom.
·
In ethers, the feature is an oxygen atom bonded
to two carbon atoms.
·
Aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group
(C=O), which is a carbon with a double bond to oxygen.
·
In an aldehyde, the carbon atom of the carbonyl
group is bonded to another carbon and one hydrogen atom. It’s always at the
end.
·
In a ketone, the carbonyl group is bonded to two
other carbon atoms.
·
In carboxylic acids, the functional group is the
carboxyl group, which is a combination of the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.
·
An ester is similar to carboxylic acid, except
that the oxygen of the carboxyl group is attached to a carbon and not to
hydrogen.
·
In amines, the central atom is a nitrogen atom.
Amines are a derivative of ammonia, NH#, in which carbon atoms replace one,
two, or three of the hydrogen atoms.
·
An amide, the hydroxyl group of a carboxylic
acid is replaced by a nitrogen group.